what term refers to the eyes moving medially to track items close at hand?

Anatomical Position

When an organism is in its standard anatomical position, positional descriptive terms are used to indicate regions and features.

Learning Objectives

Depict the standard position in human anatomy

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• In standard anatomical position, the limbs are placed similarly to the supine position imposed on cadavers during autopsy.
• The anatomical position of the skull is the Frankfurt plane. In this position, the lower margins of the orbitals (eye sockets), the lower margin of the orbits, and the upper margins of the ear canals (poria) lie in the same horizontal plane.
• Because animals tin can change orientation with respect to their environments and appendages tin change position with respect to the trunk, positional descriptive terms refer to the organism only in its standard anatomical position to preclude confusion.

Primal Terms

• appendage: A limb of the body.
• supine: Lying on its back, reclined.
• anatomical position: The standard position in which the body is standing with feet together, arms to the side, and head, eyes, and palms facing forward.

The Need for Standardization

Standard anatomical position is the body orientation used when describing an organism's  anatomy.  Standardization is necessary to avoid confusion since most organisms tin accept on many different positions that may modify the relative placement of organs. All descriptions refer to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism's appendages are in another position. Thus, the standard anatomical position provides a "gold standard" when comparing the anatomy of different members of the same species.

Relative location in the anatomical position: Many terms are used to describe relative location on the body. Cranial refers to features closer to the head, while caudal refers to features closer to the feet. The front of the trunk is referred to equally anterior or ventral, while the back is referred to as posterior or dorsal. Proximal and distal describe relative position on the limbs. Proximal refers to a feature that is closer to the torso, while distal refers to a feature that is closer to the fingers/toes. Medial and lateral refer to position relative to the midline, which is a vertical line fatigued through the eye of the forehead, downward through the umbilicus to the flooring. Medial indicates a feature is closer to this line, while lateral indicates features further from this line.

Standard Anatomical Position in Humans

The standard anatomical position is agreed upon by the international medical community. In this position, a person is standing upright with the lower limbs together or slightly apart, feet flat on the flooring and facing frontwards, upper limbs at the sides with the palms facing frontwards and thumbs pointing abroad from the body, and head and eyes directed directly ahead. In improver, the arms are usually placed slightly autonomously from the trunk and so that the hands do not bear on the sides. The positions of the limbs, particularly the arms, have of import implications for directional terms in those appendages.

The ground for the standard anatomical position in humans comes from the supine position used for examining human cadavers during autopsies. Dissection of cadavers was one of the main ways humans learned about anatomy throughout history, which has tremendously influenced the ways by which anatomical cognition has developed into the scientific field of today.

Standard anatomical position: The regions of the body in standard anatomical position, in which the trunk is erect.

In humans, the standard anatomical position of the skull is called the Frankfurt aeroplane. In this position, the orbitales (eye sockets), lower margins of the orbits, and the poria (ear canal upper margins) all prevarication in the same horizontal aeroplane. This orientation represents the position of the skull if the subject were standing upright and looking straight alee.

It is important to notation that all anatomical descriptions are based on the standard anatomical position unless otherwise stated.

Directional Terms

Positional terms requite precise descriptions of anatomical relationships and allow for consistency when referencing anatomical positions.

Learning Objectives

Place the anatomical terms that define the human trunk in space

Fundamental Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• Descriptions of directional terms include: a) superior (caput) and inferior (caudal), b) anterior and posterior, c) lateral and medial, d) deep and superficial, due east) proximal and distal, and f) dorsal and ventral.
• Directional terms provide comparison of anatomical position by comparison the locations of different structures in the trunk.

Key Terms

• directional terms: Directional terms are words used to describe the location of an anatomical construction by comparing its position to other structures within the torso or inside the orientation of the body itself.

Navigating Anatomy with Language

Directional terms provide precise descriptions of a structure'south location. They allow a description of anatomical position by comparing location relative to other structures or inside the rest of the torso. Standard anatomical terms for direction include:

• Superior and inferior (cranial and caudal) are used when referring to parts of the torso which are toward an end of the body. Superior structures are toward the head (cranial) while junior (caudal) structures are toward the anxiety. Examples include the superior and inferior vena cava, which carry deoxygenated claret away from the head (superior) and from the lower body (junior) to the center.
• Inductive and posterior are sometimes used in place of superior and junior, respectively. These words are used more often for animal anatomy and rarely and only with very specific meaning in homo anatomy. Inductive refers to the side of the structure facing upward in the standard anatomical position while posterior refers to the bottom side. For example, the pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior side, each of which secretes dissimilar types of hormones.
• Dorsal and ventral are sometimes used in identify of anterior and posterior, respectively. Dorsal means the back side or upper side, while ventral means the frontal or lower side. These are mostly used with fauna anatomy, simply can be used in human beefcake every bit long as they are describing the side of an appendage. One instance is the dorsal fin in fish, institute on the upper side of the fish'south body.
• Lateral is used to describe anything closer to the sides of the torso (toward the artillery, in the standard anatomical position), while medial is used to describe anything toward the middle of the body. In full general, many structures of the human trunk are bilateral and symmetrical with the middle of the body, such every bit the lungs or the arms.
• Deep refers to structures closer to the interior center of the body. For example, bones in an bagginess are located deeper than the muscles. Superficial is used to describe structures that are closer to the exterior surface of the body. For example, the outer layers of skin are superficial to deeper layers of skin.
• Proximal and Distal describe one point relative to another. Proximal refers to a point closer to the reference point while distal refers to a point farther away. When describing appendages, the proximal end of the appendage connects the appendage to the body, while the distal finish is away from the body.

Diagram of anatomical terms: Directional axes in a tetrapod.

Regional Terms and Axes

Regional directional terms include anterior and posterior, dorsal and ventral, and lateral and medial.

Learning Objectives

Describe how axes give direction, particular, and location when describing a region of the trunk

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• Regional terms describe the different parts of the body past the structures and functions of a specific region. The most basic regional terms are the axial and appendicular regions.
• Axes use directional terms to describe the location and orientation of a specific region.
• The directional term lateral is used to describe structures divided by a left-to-right axis.

Primal Terms

• ventral: On the front side of the human torso or the corresponding surface of an animal, usually the lower surface.
• posterior: Nearer the caudal end of the body in quadrupeds or the dorsal cease in bipeds.
• axis: A line between 2 points that is used to give direction to an anatomical region.

Regional Terms in Anatomy

Regional terms describe anatomy past dividing the parts of the trunk into different regions that comprise structures that are involved in similar functions. Two principal terms are used to describe the main regions of the body:

• The Centric Region makes upwards the chief axis of the human being body and includes the head, neck, breast, and trunk.
• The Appendicular Region makes upward the parts of the human body that connect to the axial region. This includes the limbs and appendages.

These are the two basic categories of regional terms; all the same, many other terms are used to describe smaller regions within the axial and appendicular regions. For example, the brachial region consists of the arm every bit a part of the appendicular region, while the abdominal region consists of the abdomen every bit a smaller part of the axial region.

The abdominal region is subdivided into even smaller regions based on different functions of groups of organs and tissues in that region. If a person is experiencing pain in 1 role of the intestinal region, then the smaller regional divisions can help determine the organs involved in the problem to better treat symptoms.

Axes Describe Relative Positions

Another method for describing region An axis uses a directly line between two parts of the torso to describe a region of the body with linear direction. For example, blood tin can be said to flow
in a proximal or distal direction through a region marked by that axis. The X, Y, and Z axes of the Cartesian coordinate organization are used describe the specific location of an axis in standard anatomical position.

Many types of axes tin can give regional direction. Any pair of corresponding directional terms can be combined to form an axis (such as proximal-distal for an bagginess).

• The Dorsoventral axis (DV axis) is formed past the connectedness of the dorsal and ventral points of a region. The region betwixt the belly (ventral) and dorsum (dorsal) is ofttimes described by a DV axis.
• The Anterioposterior centrality (AP centrality) is the axis formed by the connectedness of the anterior (top) and posterior (bottom) ends of a region. The AP axis of a region is by definition perpendicular to the DV centrality and vice-versa.
• The Left-to-right centrality is the axis connecting the left and correct hand sides of a region. It is used to describe the lateral sides of a region, which in humans are often symmetrical around the center of the body. Information technology is perpendicular to both the DV and AP axes.

Different Directional AP Axes in Three Body Segments of a Horse: Centrality (A) (in red) shows the AP axis of the tail, (B) shows the AP axis of the neck, and (C) shows the AP centrality of the head.

Axes give more clarity and detail for describing the location of an anatomical region. They are commonly used in both zoology and human anatomy, and can be paired with body planes to give fifty-fifty more detail to anatomical direction, region, and location.

Body Planes and Sections

There are iii bones reference planes used in anatomy: the sagittal plane, the coronal plane, and the transverse plane.

Learning Objectives

Identify the iii basic anatomical reference planes

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• A coronal or frontal aeroplane divides the trunk into dorsal and ventral (back and front, or posterior and inductive) portions.
• A transverse aeroplane, too known as an axial plane or cross-section, divides the trunk into cranial and caudal (head and tail) portions.
• A sagittal plane divides the trunk into sinister and dexter (left and correct) portions.
• Body planes have several uses within the anatomy field, including in medical imaging, descriptions of body motion, and embryology.

Key Terms

• coronal aeroplane: Whatever vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior (belly and back) sections.
• transverse plane: Any plane that divides the trunk into superior and inferior parts, roughly perpendicular to the spine.
• sagittal plane: Whatever imaginary plane parallel to the median plane.

What Are Body Planes?

Body planes are hypothetical geometric planes used to divide the body into sections. They are commonly used in both human and zoological anatomy to describe the location or management of actual structures. Reference planes are the standard planes used in anatomical terminology and include:

• The sagittal plane (lateral or Y-Z plane) divides the body into sinister and dexter (left and right) sides. The midsagittal (median) plane is in the midline through the center of the body, and all other sagittal planes are parallel to it.
• The coronal aeroplane (frontal or Y-X plane) divides the body into dorsal and ventral (back and front) portions. It too separates the inductive and posterior portions.
• The transverse plane (centric or X-Z plane) divides the body into superior and inferior (caput and tail) portions. It is typically a horizontal airplane through the heart of the trunk and is parallel to the ground.

While these are the major reference planes of the body, other planes are commonly used in relation to these three. A longitudinal plane is whatsoever aeroplane perpendicular to the transverse plane, while parasaggital planes are parallel to the saggital plane.
The coronal plane, the sagittal plane, and the parasaggital planes are examples of longitudinal
planes.

Anatomical Planes in a Human: There are iii basic planes in zoological anatomy: sagittal, coronal, and transverse. A human in the anatomical position, tin can exist described using a coordinate system with the Z-centrality going from front to back, the X-axis going from left to right, and the Y-centrality going from up to down.

Applications of Body Planes

Medical imaging techniques such equally sonography, CT scans, MRI scans, or PET scans are one of the primary applications of body planes. By imaging a patient in standard anatomical position, a radiologist can build an X-Y-Z centrality around the patient to employ trunk planes to the images. The planes can and then exist used to identify and locate the positions of the patient'southward internal organs. Individual organs can too exist divided by planes to help place smaller structures within that organ.

Torso planes are used to describe anatomical motion in the X-Y-Z coordinate system that the torso moves through. An anatomist could model a limb's range of movement past measuring which planes the limb tin move through and how far it is able to travel.

Anatomical change during embryological evolution is as well described and measured with body planes. For case, during human embryonic development the coronal plane is horizontal, but becomes vertical as the embryo develops into a fetus.  In comparative embryology, torso planes provide a basis for comparing the ways in which different types of organisms develop anatomically within the womb.

Torso Cavities

Vertebrates have fluid-filled spaces called torso cavities that contain the organs.

Learning Objectives

Draw the major cavities of the man torso

Primal Takeaways

Primal Points

• The dorsal crenel contains the master organs of the nervous system, including the brain and spinal string.
• The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
• Special membrane tissues surround the body cavities, such as the meninges of the dorsal cavity and the mesothelium of the ventral cavity.
• The mesothelium consists of the pleura of the lungs, the pericardium of the heart, and the peritoneum of the abdominopelvic cavity.

Key Terms

• abdominoplevic crenel: The ventral trunk sleeping accommodation that contains the intestinal cavity (primarily digestive organization) and the pelvic cavity (primarily reproductive organisation).
• dorsal cavity: The cavity in the back of the body that contains the cranial and vertebral cavities, which house the brain and spinal cord respectively.
• Thoracic Cavity: The ventral body chamber that contains the pericardial crenel (the centre) and the pleural crenel (the lungs).

Past the broadest definition, a body cavity is any fluid-filled space in a multicellular organism. However, the term usually refers to the space where internal organs develop, located betwixt the peel and the outer lining of the gut cavity."The human being trunk cavity," commonly refers to the ventral body crenel because it is past far the largest 1 in book. Blood vessels are not considered cavities simply may be held within cavities. Virtually cavities provide room for the organs to adjust to changes in the organism'southward position. They usually contains protective membranes and sometimes bones that protect the organs.

Anatomical terminology for body cavities: Humans take multiple torso cavities, including the cranial crenel, the vertebral cavity, the thoracic cavity (containing the pericardial cavity and the pleural cavity), the abdominal crenel, and the pelvic crenel. In mammals, the diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the intestinal cavity.

Dorsal

The dorsal cavity is a continuous cavity located on the dorsal side of the body. It houses the organs of the upper central nervous system, including the brain and the spinal string. The meninges is a multi-layered membrane inside the dorsal cavity that envelops and protects the brain and spinal string.

Cranial

The cranial cavity is the inductive portion of the dorsal cavity consisting of the space inside the skull. This cavity contains the encephalon, the meninges of the brain, and cerebrospinal fluid.

Vertebral

The vertebral cavity is the posterior portion of the dorsal cavity and contains the structures within the vertebral column. These include the spinal cord, the meninges of the spinal cord, and the fluid-filled spaces between them. This is the nigh narrow of all body cavities, sometimes described as threadlike.

Ventral

The ventral cavity, the interior infinite in the front of the body, contains many unlike organ systems. The organs inside the ventral crenel are likewise called viscera. The ventral cavity has inductive and posterior portions divided past the diaphragm, a sheet of skeletal musculus found beneath the lungs.

Thoracic

The thoracic cavity is the anterior ventral trunk cavity found within the rib cage in the body. Information technology houses the chief organs of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, such as the middle and lungs, merely besides includes organs from other systems, such as the esophagus and the thymus gland. The thoracic cavity is lined by 2 types of mesothelium, a type of membrane tissue that lines the ventral cavity: the pleura lining of the lungs, and the pericadium lining of the heart.

Abdominopelvic

The abdominoplevic cavity is the posterior ventral body cavity constitute below the thoracic cavity and diaphragm. Information technology is generally divided into the abdominal and pelvic cavities. The intestinal crenel is not contained within os and houses many organs of the digestive and renal systems, besides every bit some organs of the endocrine system, such as the adrenal glands. The pelvic cavity is contained inside the pelvis and houses the bladder and reproductive system. The abdominopelvic cavity is lined by a type of mesothelium called the peritoneum.

Abdominopelvic Regions

The belly is subdivided into iv quadrants and nine areas.

Learning Objectives

Distinguish among the abdominopelvic regions of the body

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The abdominopelvic crenel can exist subdivided into four quadrants and nine areas.
  The quadrants are labeled past location: the right upper, right lower, left upper, and left lower quadrants.
• The 9 regions are smaller than the iv abdominopelvic quadrants and include the right hypochondriac, right lumbar, correct illiac, epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric (or pubic), left hypochondriac, left lumbar, and left illiac divisions.
• The perineum is sometimes considered to exist the tenth sectionalisation.
• The purpose of the abdominal divisions is to describe regional anatomy in the abdomen, and to help clinicians determine which organ and tissues are involved in a affliction based on which regions experience pain.

Key Terms

• left upper quadrant: The left upper quadrant is the location of the left portion of the liver, the larger portion of the tummy, the pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of the transverse and descending colon, and parts of the small intestine.
• Right upper quadrant: The right upper quadrant contains the right portion of the liver, gallbladder, right kidney, a pocket-sized portion of the stomach, portions of the ascending and transverse colon, and parts of the small-scale intestine.
• left lower quadrant: The left lower quadrant houses the bulk of the small intestine, some of the large intestine, the left female reproductive organs, and the left ureter.
• nine divisions: An alternating arrangement for dividing the abdominopelvic crenel into regions.
• correct lower quadrant: In the right lower quadrant sits the cecum, appendix, function of the small intestines, the right female reproductive organs, and the right ureter.

Anatomists and medical personnel divide the abdominopelvic cavity into smaller regions to facilitate study and word. These divisions are often used to categorize the individual abdominal organs by their location and function and are used by clinicians to assist diagnose the source of abdominal pain and make up one's mind advisable handling. The most common divisions for the abdominopelvic region are the four quadrants and 9 regions.

Abdominal nine divisions (a) and quadrant regions (b): The abdomen is subdivided into four quadrants and 9 areas.

Abdominal Four Quadrants

The abdominopelvic region can be divided into four quadrants. These quadrants are defined past the intersection of the saggital plane with the umbilical aeroplane (the transverse plane through the umbilicus). Clinicians utilize these regions to make up one's mind the organs and tissues that may be causing hurting or discomfort in that region.

Right Upper Quadrant

The right upper quadrant contains the right portion of the liver, the gallbladder, right kidney, a small portion of the stomach, the duodenum, the head of the pancreas, portions of the ascending and transverse colon, and parts of small intestine. Hurting in this region is associated with infection and inflammation in the gallbladder and liver or peptic ulcers in the stomach.

Left Upper Quadrant

The left upper quadrant is the location of the left portion of the liver, office of the stomach, the pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of the transverse and descending colon, and parts of the small intestine. Hurting in this region is associated with malrotation of the intestine and colon.

Right Lower Quadrant

In the right lower quadrant sits the cecum, appendix, part of the pocket-size intestines, the right half of the female reproductive organization, and the right ureter. Pain in this region is most commonly associated with appendicitis.

Left Lower Quadrant

The left lower quadrant houses the majority of the pocket-size intestine, some of the large intestine, the left half of the female reproductive organization, and the left ureter. Pain in this region is generally associated with colitis (inflammation of the large intestine) as well as pelvic inflammatory affliction and ovarian cysts in females.

Abdominal 9 Divisions

The nine divisions of the abdominopelvic region are smaller than the four quadrants, allowing for a more detailed discussion. These divisions are marked by 2 parasagittal and ii transverse planes centered around the navel. Well-nigh organs are role of multiple regions, including the gallbladder, duodenum, tum, kidneys, spleen, small intestine and colon. The perineum (the area beneath the hypogastric region at the bottom of the pelvic cavity) is sometimes considered to be a tenth division in this arrangement.

Right Hypochondriac

The right hypochondriac region contains the right portion of the liver, the gallbladder, the right kidney, and parts of the small intestine.

Left Hypochondriac

The left hypochondriac region contains function of the spleen, the left kidney, part of the stomach, the pancreas, and parts of the colon.

Epigastric

The epigastric (to a higher place stomach) region contains the majority of the tum,  part of the liver, part of the pancreas, office of the duodenum, part of the spleen, and the adrenal glands. This region pushes out when the diaphragm contracts during breathing.

Correct Lumbar

The right lumbar region consists of the gallbladder, the right kidney, part of the liver, and the ascending colon.

Left Lumbar

The left lumbar region consists of the descending colon, the left kidney, and part of the spleen.

Umbilical

The umbilical region contains the umbilicus (navel), and many parts of the pocket-sized intestine, such every bit part of the duodenum, the jejunum, and the illeum. It as well contains the transverse colon (the section between the ascending and descending colons) and the bottom portions of both the left and right kidney.

Right Iliac

The right iliac region contains the appendix, cecum, and the correct iliac fossa. It is likewise commonly referred to every bit the right inguinal region. Pain in this area is generally associated with appendicitis.

Left Iliac

The left illiac region contains function of the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the right illiac fossa. It is also usually chosen the left inguinal region.

Hypogastric

The hypogastric region (below the breadbasket) contains the organs around the pubic os. These include bladder, function of the sigmoid colon, the anus, and many organs of the reproductive system, such every bit the uterus and ovaries in females and the prostate in males.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/mapping-the-body/

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